Examples of integrated pest mana

Examples of integrated pest management practices include: Integrated vegetation management (IVM) is the practice of promoting desirable, stable, low-growing plant communities that resist pest invasion. There is ca. The spray deposition was modeled for low boom ground, high boom ground, and aerial applications at 0, 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 m from the edge of a field. Additionally, pollinators can be directly exposed to these chemicals if they are foraging at the time when crops, garden plants, or natural areas are being sprayed with insecticide. sciencedirect.com Sci Total Environ. For the bifenthrin experiments, the solvent-treated caterpillars were 1.3-fold higher than their original starting weight at the end of the experiment. Pyrethroid insecticides are commonly used to control insect pests of corn and soybean across the United States (Ragsdale et al. Sears, M. K., R. L. Hellmich, D. E. Stanley-Horn, K. S. Oberhauser, J. M. Pleasants, H. R. Mattila, B. D. Siegfried, and G. P. Dively. These data are important for the ecological risk characterization of foliar-applied insecticides in agriculture-dominated landscapes. Bio pesticide; Butterflies; Non-target effects; Pesticide; Population dynamics. 2016), and immune function (Adamo et al. The University of Minnesota conducted research on how monarch larvae and adults were affected by exposure to insecticides commonly used in mosquito control (resmethrin and permethrin). 20% pupation mortality observed with the monarch colony, which is often attributed to caterpillars in the J-state falling mid-pupation from the top of the test chamber (Greiner et al. (2020).

We also thank Niranjana Krishnan and Steve Bradbury for technical guidance and sharing of toxicity data. Epub 2016 Oct 28. Epub 2014 Sep 26. Pleasants and Oberhauser (2013) documented a ca. Accessibility 2015 Jan 1;502:252-65. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.09.027. The final model for the effect of bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin on caterpillar weight included the covariate of individual starting weight (P < 0.0001), blocking factor of experiment (P < 0.005), and significant linear (P < 0.005) and quadratic (P < 0.005) treatment by time interaction. 2020). JavaScript appears to be disabled on this computer. The daily weight was not recorded for the 0.05 g/l bifenthrin treatment, but the initial and final weight was recorded for each caterpillar. FOIA Bifenthrin (CAS# 82657-04-3, 99.5%) and -cyfluthrin (CAS# 1820573-27-0, 98.0%) were purchased from Chem Service Inc. (West Chester, PA) and stored at room temperature. 2019). Brain, R., G. Goodwin, F. Abi-Akar, B. Lee, C. Rodgers, B. Flatt, A. Lynn, G. Kruger, and D. Perkins. Daily and total diet consumption of fifth-instar monarch caterpillars after topical exposure to bifenthrin (A and C) and -cyfluthrin (B and D). Epub 2020 Sep 3. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION

m.U7@Br"8j`y $sA\l 3). /Lang (EN) The dissipation half-life for -cyfluthrin is less than that for bifenthrin and, according to the Baythroid XL label, there can be multiple applications of the insecticide to pest-infested soybean fields at 7-d intervals. 2017). Oberhauser, K. S., S. J. Brinda, S. Weaver, R. D. Moon, S. A. Manweiler, and N. Read. A recent study reports the residue levels of deltamethrin on milkweeds that border agricultural crops (Olaya-Arenas and Kaplan 2019), but there are no data collected for other pyrethroids, including bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin. Lee NSM, Clements GR, Ting ASY, Wong ZH, Yek SH. % Ultra-low volume treatments are intended to affect insects as they are flying, whereas the barrier treatments remain on leaves, providing a barrier to mosquitoes that may not be out foraging during the day. If a less conservative exposure scenario is considered for the deposition of the insecticides on the dorsal half of the caterpillar following a low ground boom application, the risk of lethal exposure is predicted to be within 2 m for a bifenthrin- or -cyfluthrin treated crop. The toxicity of bifenthrin to caterpillars was lower than -cyfluthrin after 72 h. Survival was the most sensitive endpoint for bifenthrin, but diet consumption and caterpillar growth were significantly reduced at sublethal levels of -cyfluthrin. Our findings provide evidence that pyrethroids are a potential risk to caterpillars in these landscapes. While more exhaustive toxicity (Krishnan et al. The authors appreciate the assistance provided by Richard Hellmich and Keith Bidne from USDA-ARS, Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Unit, as well as Chip Taylor at Monarch Watch in establishing the UNL monarch colony and optimizing the artificial diet. sciencedirect.com

Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. This label language raises awareness of potential effects to pollinator habitat and directs the user to instructions on minimizing spray drift. The aerial assessment predicts the deposition of bifenthrin on milkweeds at distances up to 60 m from the treated edge of a field to be lethal to caterpillars, but the insecticide would not be lethal at distances >105 m from the treated edge of a field. 0006-3207 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) Cooperative Agreement Guidances, which are periodically updated, outline areas of cooperation between EPA and the states. The treatments were analyzed as a continuous effect. At 72 h posttreatment, there was a significant 15% (P = 0.047) and 45% (P < 0.0001) reduction in body weight for caterpillars that were treated with, and survived, 0.05 and 0.1 g/l -cyfluthrin, respectively, compared with the solvent-treated caterpillars.

This research was funded by a United States Department of Agriculture Hatch Grant NEB-28-116 awarded to A.M.V, T.J.K, and T.D.A. Suite 426 Spray-drift exposure estimates of bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin for fifth-instar monarch caterpillars using the AgDRIFT model. Spray drift management can help protect pollinator habitat, including monarch habitat, by ensuring that pesticide dont move to non-target plants where pollinators forage. The conservation efforts to restore monarch butterfly populations require ca. This unique life history has made the North American population more susceptible to multiple stressors, both in their overwintering grounds and breeding habitat. In 2018, EPA offered webinars on spray drift management and integrated pest management to educate growers, applicators and other stakeholders involved in crop production on ways to reduce pesticide drift and limit pesticide exposure. Both the ultra-low resmethrin study and the barrier permethrin study showed negative impacts on monarch larvae and adults. The caterpillars were stratified by weight and randomly assigned to treatment groups, 10 individuals per treatment group, to ensure an equal size distribution across all treatments. 3569 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<630A508D7540E9428DC7E04B9B26F257>]/Index[3553 37]/Info 3552 0 R/Length 89/Prev 1181738/Root 3554 0 R/Size 3590/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream However, in agriculture, pyrethroids like bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin are used in much larger quantities but toxicity data has only recently become available for -cyfluthrin (Krishnan et al. J Insect Sci. A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 182 (2015) 148-154. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.045 For the low boom deposition of bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin, these distances are reduced to 2 m from the treated edge of a field. Adult monarchs traveling across agricultural fields in search of milkweed or nectar during times of insecticide application are at higher risk, however. 2016). uuid:af643112-7b88-4e58-aa3d-0f44bde1a0c1 Because of their acute toxicity, pyrethroids have been used to control a variety of insect outbreaks. Leaves from the barrier treatments resulted in higher mortality to monarch larvae than control leaves up to 3 weeks after the initial application. Crop seeds can be treated before being planted, allowing uptake by the plant during growth, and thus protection from plant pests for a period of time while the chemical remains in the plant tissues. neonicotinoid pesticide population decline usage tortoiseshell 7 clay (Sonnes Organic Foods Inc., Liberty, MO) solution. The mortality and behavior (i.e., normal, lethargic, immobile, loss of hemolymph) of the caterpillars was observed daily over a 72-h exposure period. February 2015 Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. 2002). 2010-04-23 The guidances describe specific pesticide program activities where grant money may be disbursed. Educational webinars. Bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin experiments were repeated in triplicate using caterpillars from two different generations for a total of 30 caterpillars per treatment. A micronucleus assay detects genotoxic effects of herbicide exposure in a protected butterfly species. SeeRisks of Neonicotinoid Use to Pollinators for more information. 1.8 bill new milkweed stems on the landscape, a goal that can only be reached with the cooperation of agricultural land managers (Thogmartin et al. High plant density and a controlled temperature environment can foster insect pests that damage the plants being grown in a greenhouse or nursery. Copyright 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. participated in the investigation and A.J.K., K.H., T.J.W., A.M.V., and T.D.A. true

The monarch caterpillar weight and diet consumption were analyzed using SAS 9.4 PROC GLIMMIX (SAS). We thank Terence Spencer and Matthew Greiner for assistance maintaining the UNL monarch colony. A.J.K. /Length 1099 The monarch caterpillar diet was prepared using Southland multi-species Lepidoptera diet (Southland Products Inc., Lake Village, AR) with the addition of 15% (w/w) lyophilized tropical milkweed, Asclepias curassavica (Gentianales: Apocynaceae) leaf powder. Thank you for submitting a comment on this article. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide, This PDF is available to Subscribers Only. In 2015, in order to be responsive to public concerns about the monarch population decline, EPA released the Risk Management Approach to Identifying Options for Protecting the Monarch Butterfly for public comment. << 1997). Pyrethroids are classified as type I or type II based on their chemical structure, effects on the central nervous system and subsequent symptomology (Gammon et al. Eco-toxicological risk and impact of pesticides on important parasitoids of cabbage butterflies in cruciferous ecosystem. Urbanization official website and that any information you provide is encrypted In addition to incorporating this language into registration review decisions, this language will also be added to the pesticide label review manual in 2019 and will continue to be implemented on newer pesticide labels. Most insecticides (and all other pesticides, including herbicides, fungicides and nematocides) are used in agricultural applications. 2A). Recent herbicide labels have already been modified to reflect the appropriate language. While our study did not focus on pyrethroid effects to caterpillars infected with the protozoan Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) (Neogregarinorida: Ophryocystidae), a challenged immune system in response to infection may affect the susceptibility of caterpillars to insecticide exposures. 2020 reported the application of AgDRIFT for the evaluation of pesticide risk to nontarget insect communities, including monarch caterpillars. 2B). Beyond the EPAs spray drift management webinars listed above, the following resources provide information on reducing pesticide drift which can help protect pollinator habitat: You can help create and promote pollinator habitat in your own backyard by checking out the following resources. It should be noted that our adult monarchs are routinely checked for the OE, which has never been observed in the colony, and that field-collected adults are not introduced to our colony. 2015). The effects of pesticides are not simply linear, but complex through their interactions with a large variety of biotic and abiotic factors. Cooperative efforts between EPA and federal, state and other stakeholders; Education and outreach that promotes spray drift management, best management practices and integrated pest management; and. Ecotoxicology. MeSH /PageLayout /SinglePage PeerJ. %PDF-1.6 % It is important to determine if plants have been treated before purchasing and planting them. Krischik, V., M. Rogers, G. Gupta, and A. Varshney. contributed to the conceptualization of this manuscript. hbbd```b``]"I[09,"d"l&0"I[ )R$$3012@H'?w >t E 8600 Rockville Pike Butterflies play an important role in ecosystems, are well monitored and are recognised as good indicators of environmental health. Bb~_D8f*% ccY Ex{U(:t{n^X;~k[|w{e1- 09lW51Z 0 Z If the risk of exposure is based on the -cyfluthrin LOED of 0.05 g/l, then the deposition affecting caterpillar growth after a ground application is predicted to be 3 m for low boom and 6 m for high boom from the edge of the insecticide-treated field. Careers. 2021 Mar 1;21(2):2. doi: 10.1093/jisesa/ieaa149. endobj Persistent mosquito fogging can be detrimental to non-target invertebrates in an urban tropical forest. Bifenthrin was found to be less toxic than -cyfluthrin to fifth-instar caterpillars as documented in other insect species (Clements and May 1977, Gammon et al. The Author(s) 2021. Copyright 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. A Gaussian distribution was assumed for both outcomes. A significant reduction in diet consumption for caterpillars in all treatment groups was observed at 48 h posttreatment (P < 0.0001) compared with the solvent-treated individuals. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Assessing the ecology in ecotoxicology: a review and synthesis in freshwater systems. For -cyfluthrin, the aerial assessment predicts deposition on milkweeds at distances up to 55 m from the treated edge of a field to affect caterpillar growth, but the insecticide would not affect growth at distances >94 m from the treated edge of a field. /Filter [/FlateDecode] Audrey Muratet %%EOF

Using AgDRIFT spray drift assessment, the aerial application of bifenthrin or -cyfluthrin is predicted to pose the greatest risk to fifth-instar caterpillars, with lethal insecticide deposition up to 28 m for bifenthrin and up to 23 m for -cyfluthrin from treated edges of fields. There were symptoms of intoxication, including hemolymph bleeding and spasming, observed for the caterpillars treated with 0.2 g/l bifenthrin and 0.025 g/l -cyfluthrin at 0- to 1-h posttreatment. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs licence (. There was a significant reduction in body weight for caterpillars treated with 0.2 g/l (13%, P = 0.0085) and 0.4 g/l bifenthrin (22%, P < 0.0001) for 24 h, but only a significant reduction for caterpillars treated with 0.4 g/l bifenthrin for 48 h (24%, P < 0.0001) and 72 h (24%, P = 0.0003) compared with the solvent-treated individuals (Fig. EPA is also discussing how best to protect monarch butterflies with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the State FIFRA Issues Research And Evaluation Group (SFIREG), and the Association of American Pesticide Control Officials (AAPCO). Braak et al. >> Threats to the monarch butterfly population are multi-pronged and include loss of breeding habitat, loss of overwintering habitat in Mexico (where the butterflies spend their winters), changes in weather patterns (including winter storms), and other factors1. Deposition (g/cm2) was multiplied by either the full caterpillar surface area (7.10 cm2) or one-half caterpillar surface area (3.55 cm2). However, if the only dorsal side of the caterpillar is exposed to the insecticides, there would be a substantial decrease in these predicted distances. 2011). endobj EPA believes that a holistic approach is needed for monarch conservation that includes judicious use of herbicides, balancing weed management needs with monarch conservation needs, and focusing on ways to support monarch conservation through pesticide registration review, registration and stakeholder outreach and education. Teske, M. E., S. L. Bird, D. M. Esterly, T. B. Curbishley, S. L. Ray, and S. G. Perry. Adamo, S. A., G. Davies, R. Easy, I. Kovalko, and K. F. Turnbull. MJV federal tax ID: 83-1343107. 1D). Furthermore, alternative neuronal target sites have been identified with type II pyrethroids, which leads to the CS-syndrome observed with -cyfluthrin and may explain the increased toxicity observed with the caterpillars (Soderlund et al. The AgDRIFT Tier 1 aerial and ground spray drift assessment (AgDRIFT ver. The Monarch Joint Venture (MJV) is a partnership of federal and state agencies, non-governmental organizations, businesses and academic programs working together to protect the monarch migration across the United States. Alonso-Mejia, A., E. Rendon-Salinas, E. Montesinos-Patino, and L. P. Brower. tifHI]MI=_&'tD\Q:ST[%/B9,EJBYe8E['#DT,QcXt:'Ig:UH{Z)+ NNeh-NfK^ry)=-{t6aL#iOy|4G)%?JOmrRlFlIn=^48&/81d')&atB=!"1 ="|B&xT=Dt)')TEb 2010;204:1-132. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-1440-8_1. Geest, E. A., L. L. Wolfenbarger, and J. P. McCarty. Elsevier Ltd 1981). 7 0 obj 2010-04-23 There are many ways to reduce pesticide exposure, which in turn can help protect native pollinators like the monarch butterfly. The most sensitive endpoint for bifenthrin was caterpillar survival and, thus, the NOED (0.10 g/caterpillar) and LOED (0.20 g/caterpillar) were estimated based on survival 72 h after insecticide treatment. After washing, the leaves were air-dried and stored at 80C before lyophilized and ground into a fine powder. A laboratory colony was established in the Department of Entomology at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln using eggs received from Iowa State University (Ames, IA). The AgDRIFT Tier 1 aerial and ground deposition assessments are conservative assessments and other studies have found deposition estimates from this model to be 2040 times higher than what is detected in spray drift residue trials (Brain et al. Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. Please check for further notifications by email. /Names 4 0 R Future work should focus on testing these drift assessments and the application of drift reduction technologies to reduce pyrethroid exposures to caterpillars. In urban and suburban areas, adult and larval mosquito populations are controlled vigorously and repetitively. k*4rkL\E9!bBl;c*`}x&b&Z#/$]TeNLz% %`C_8X"7Y49S< 6zbp>Y#Ps`2 U$|Vut4[%BT9bTDD&Q4J^O#Z6PGkQ+R%oxr3lxJ>hB(JTCg1"*h5TA$8DF*(zs'D1Q}6r{"VW\]%_*Ua 1$a@@8, Contrasting impacts of pesticides on butterflies and bumblebees in private gardens in France, BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 182 (2015) 148-154. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.045. They are systemic, meaning that when they are applied, plants absorb and distribute the compounds to all parts of the plant, making the leaves, nectar, pollen, and woody tissue toxic to insects and other arthropods that feed on them. A first-order Antedependence pattern was chosen to model the covariance structure. The results of the caterpillar body weights after treatment with bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin are shown in Fig. One group of insecticides that is raising concern is neonicotinoids, which are used on farms and around homes, schools, and city landscapes. Insecticide HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Fifth-instar caterpillars of the monarch butterfly were used for all laboratory experiments. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Additionally, the deposition assessment with AgDRIFT and the field deposition reported in the EPA Environmental Fate and Ecological Effect Assessment (US EPA 2016) raises concerns for the risk of bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin to monarch caterpillars on milkweeds that border agricultural crops. Nail, K. R., C. Stenoien, and K. S. Oberhauser. Thogmartin, W. E., L. Lpez-Hoffman, J. Rohweder, J. Diffendorfer, R. Drum, D. Semmens, S. Black, I. Caldwell, D. Cotter, P. Drobney, et al. doi: 10.7717/peerj.10033. 182 Pyrethroid studies in butterfly species have focused on compounds largely used for mosquito management, including permethrin and deltamethrin (Braak et al. The toxicity of bifenthrin (LD50 = 0.44 g/l [0.320.65], slope = 1.86 [1.342.37]) was significantly less for the monarch caterpillars compared to -cyfluthrin (LD50 = 0.14 g/l [0.120.19], slope = 3.59 [2.394.80]) 72 h after application of the insecticides based on nonoverlapping 95% CIs. stream EPA is committed to protecting pollinators, including the monarch butterfly. Diffendorfer, J. E., J. 2014-12-20T15:41:43+05:30 These broad-spectrum insecticides are acutely neurotoxic, targeting the voltage-gated Na+ channel and disrupting neurological function (Clements and May 1977). While this may not be a lethal dose for bees, sublethal effects such as decreased ability to locate food sources or their hive may impact the productivity of the colony. The doseresponse calculations and associated statistical analyses were conducted using SAS 9.4 PROC PROBIT (SAS, Cary, NC). AgDRIFT is a model for estimating near-field spray drift from aerial applications and has been used as a modeling tool for risk assessment when residue data are unavailable (Teske et al. << /Pages 5 0 R Weight of fifth-instar monarch caterpillars after topical exposure to bifenthrin (A) and -cyfluthrin (B).

This prediction is based on a worst-case scenario for the whole-body surface area of the caterpillar to be exposed to bifenthrin or -cyfluthrin either by direct deposition or with the caterpillar walking across the pyrethroid-treated surface of a milkweed leaf. While it is unclear how hemolymph loss might affect pupation, McKay et al. Dunbar, M. W., M. E. ONeal, and A. J. Gassmann. 2017 Feb;168:372-383. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.10.071. Here, we report the significant effects that the pyrethroids bifenthrin and -cyfluthrin, at field-relevant concentrations, have on the growth and survival of fifth-instar monarch caterpillars. 2020) and exposure data (Olaya-Arenas and Kaplan 2019) are becoming available for different life stages and classes of insecticides, data are lacking on the sublethal effects of insecticide exposures to monarchs. (2020). Bifenthrin would not be lethal at distances beyond 8 m for low boom and 15 m of for high boom applications. The low and high boom ground assessment predicts the deposition of bifenthrin to milkweeds at distances up to 4 and 6 m, respectively, from the treated edge of a field to be lethal to monarch caterpillars. These insecticides do have harmful effects on monarchs if exposed, but population-level impacts will depend on the proportion of host plants treated in a given landscape or how much of the monarch population is directly exposed. Summer applications, Consequences of food restriction for immune defense, parasite infection, and fitness in monarch butterflies, Immature monarch survival: effects of site characteristics, density, and time. The point deposition (g/cm2) of each insecticide estimated with AgDRIFT was multiplied by the total surface area of a caterpillar (ca. The amount of information already known about butterfly ecology and the increased availability of genomes make them a very valuable model for the study of non-target effects of pesticide usage. Olaya-Arenas P, Hauri K, Scharf ME, Kaplan I. Sci Rep. 2020 Sep 2;10(1):14490. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-71211-7. /Metadata 7 0 R The AgDRIFT model was used to predict spray deposition and to provide a landscape perspective for toxicity endpoints. 2014-12-21T16:28:01+01:00 Monarch Joint Venture The bifenthrin experiments were conducted prior to the -cyfluthrin experiments and, thus, the natural variability in the caterpillar growth rate may explain the differences observed with each experiment.

The leaves were collected from plants grown in a greenhouse throughout the year, washed in a 10% (v/v) bleach solution, rinsed thoroughly with water and soaked in a 10% (v/v) Sonnes No. /Subtype /XML The nonsignificant terms (P > 0.05) were dropped from the initial model for the final analysis. Pleasants, J. M., and K. S. Oberhauser. There was no mortality observed for caterpillars treated with -cyfluthrin at 0.025 g/l, although there was 7% mortality observed for caterpillars treated with 0.05 g/l -cyfluthrin, despite hemolymph bleeding and an upright posturing observed for these individuals. Growth and survival of monarch butterflies (Lepidoptera: Daniadae) after exposure to permethrin barrier treatments, Quantifying pesticide exposure risk for monarch caterpillars on milkweeds bordering agricultural land, Non-target effects of clothianidin on monarch butterflies, Milkweed restoration in the Midwest for monarch butterfly recovery: estimates of milkweeds lost, milkweeds remaining and milkweeds that must be added to increase the monarch population, Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use: effect on the monarch butterfly population, Ecology and management of the soybean aphid in North America. All donations are taxdeductible to the full extent of the law. 2. A loss of hemolymph, and possibly turgor pressure, could significantly impact the molting and pupation success of the caterpillars. 0 For this reason, nurseries (even those growing plants specifically for native plant gardens with the purpose of attracting and benefiting pollinators!) HlVnIWQs] xL2C, $#-n*GZXl:(3V5,9r1UV'*xb-yZRp|):>3s'w.>_ue. Lx

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2002). Contrasting impacts of pesticides on butterflies and bumblebees in private gardens in France The experiments were repeated in triplicate for a total of 30 caterpillars per treatment. For experiments, eggs were collected daily and stored at 16C for up to 14 d. The eggs were moved to room temperature and hatched within 23 d. Neonates were then placed on artificial diet within 24 h of hatching. False A lock (LockA locked padlock) or https:// means youve safely connected to the .gov website. aPyrethroid toxicity data are presented as LD10, LD25, LD50, LD75, and LD90 and their 95% CIs in micrograms per microliter. Additionally, insecticide drift into ditches and field borders can affect monarchs. The daily diet consumption was not significantly different than that of the untreated caterpillars for any other concentration or time-point. Again, experiment was a significant (P < 0.005) blocking factor for bifenthrin total diet consumption, but not for -cyfluthrin total diet consumption (P = 0.88) and was removed from the -cyfluthrin diet models. Pyrethroid Exposure Reduces Growth and Development of Monarch Butterfly (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Caterpillars. 2016). EPA-HQ-OPP-2010-0384-0045). The Superworm, Zophobas morio (Coleoptera:Tenebrionidae): A Sleeping Giant in Nutrient Sources, Low-Cost Live Insect Scouting Drone: iDrone Bee.

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