Several factors play a role in shaping a persons perception of the ideal body image, and their thoughts and feelings about their own body. Furthermore, when Britain regained control over Sudan in 1890, the pre-existing dichotomy of the more-developed Islamic-Arabic north and the underdeveloped African south remained intact (Hunter 2002). Fredrickson B, Roberts T, (1997) Objectification theory: Toward understanding womens lived experiences and mental health risks. 47 (4 ): 344-53. Grogan S (2008) Body image: understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women, and children. The translation work between Arabic and English may have impacted on the data collection and analysis. Current directions in abnormal psychology. (1990) Body images: Development, deviance and change.

Kooyers TJ. For this reason, throughout the translation and transcribing process, words that did not have an straight forward equivalent were explored and discussed further to ensure that the final transcript conveyed the sentiments expressed. The response to this societal focus by the participants varied. 46 (2):6675. memoriam cancer The data-analysis process was supported by NVivo 9 software. The findings indicate that beauty-related behaviours serve various potential purposes, including improvement in economic standing, increased social esteem and the preservation of a strong Sudanese national identity. Journal of Environ Sci Eng. Mernissi F (1991) Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry. According to most participants, a range of methods were used to gain weight: tablets, injections (including insulin), herbal tablets and high-calorie diets.

Also participants had the right not to answer any question. Naser J, Kirm I. (2006) suggest that personal preferences in attractiveness are flexible, and can change with exposure to different environments and situations. Available at: Batnitzky A (2011) 'Cultural constructions of obesity: Understanding body size, social class and gender in Morocco', Health & Place, 7 (1 ): 345352. Int J Environ Res Public Health; 8 (6 ): 2516-23. (Lewis et. Indeed, the findings revealed that the beauty rituals made many of the participants feel happy, fashionable, sexually attractive and Sudanese. Beauty practices varied significantly. J Egypt Public Health Assoc 85 (1 & 2) 45-59. Participant 7( aged 20 years), reported that . The majority of participants felt that in Sudanese society, there was a great emphasis on physical attractiveness, with less regard for non-physical and personality qualities, such as a womans education, mental capacities and strengths. Percutaneous absorption of bleaching products is enhanced as the products are used for long periods of time, on large body-surface areas and in hot, humid environments (Olumide et al., 2008). This article presents body-image and beauty-practice themes drawn from an in-depth qualitative study of young Sudanese women living in Sudan. Palgrave Macmillan. However, for the majority of the participants, skin lightening and the other beauty practices were important, and part of their daily lives. 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Peregrino P, Moreno V, Miranda V, Rubio D, Leal O (2011) Mercury levels in locally manufactured Mexican skin-lightening creams. The majority of the participants (N = 16) were from Muslim backgrounds, and three were from Christian backgrounds. New York: Routledge. All the interviews were translated and transcribed verbatim twice, by the researcher and by an independent professional translator. Also, the data were collected in 2006; with the rapid development underway in Sudan and ever-increasing globalisation of hegemonic narratives throughout the world, the views of young, educated Sudanese women such as those interviewed may have shifted in the intervening years. It is important to note that there were a few participants who did not make use of skin-lightening products and who were negotiating with dominant expectations of them, as the following participants reveal: Lastly, in terms of the changing notions of beauty in modern Sudanese society, the study revealed the importance of geographical location, and the fact that there were different attitudes to physical attractiveness in urban and rural areas. What was evident was that, for some, it remained important to conform to these standards, for they reaped rewards that were of value, both to their self-worth and to their professional and familial prospects. Women's perceptions of the benefits and risks of skin-lightening creams in two South African communities. Accordingly, the dynamic process of conceptualising female physical beauty in Sudan, the beautification practices and the methods used to achieve beauty have changed and evolved over time. Accordingly, there is variation in what is considered to be an ideal body image by different people, and by different cultural and ethnic groups throughout the world (Dlova et.al 2014; Baumann, 2008). Henna was applied by both married and single women. Baumann S (2008) The moral underpinnings of beauty: A meaning-based explanation for light and dark complexions in advertising. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21 (2): 173206. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants to allow for an exploration of key issues and topics, while allowing the researcher to retain a degree of control via the standardisation of the interview process (Denscombe, 2003). In order to gain a broad range of views and experiences, participants were recruited from different faculties. Moreover, the findings revealed that these practices were the main factors in achieving and maintaining ones social standing as a woman and a potential/actual wife. All the participants perceived its application as being unique and beautiful, and an important symbol not only of Sudanese society but also of being married: . Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 female students from universities across Khartoum. This study was conducted in four universities in Khartoum, Sudan. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc: 97101. Ethnic and Racial Studies. This has led to a preoccupation among Sudanese women with their appearance, and the role this plays as a tool to achieve security, respect and social acceptance. The participants had very clear views about the rationale underpinning and importance of their beauty regimes. This ongoing preoccupation with race and skin colour as part of an ethnic identity is clearly linked with the countrys historical roots and has, in turn, led to the institutional form of cherishing and celebrating any Arabic and Islamic roots. Some felt that notions of physical attractiveness had changed since the disappearance of some of the more traditional beauty practices and rituals. Ibrahim (1972), a leading Sudanese feminist who has written widely in this area, argues that Sudanese culture is dominated by gender and ethnic inequality, and that in Sudan, women are perceived as weak, emotional and irrational individuals.

All the women, however, were Sudanese, having been born and raised in Sudan. Participants in this study were higher and secondary school students in central Sudan. Yousif et.

International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 5 6): 544- 550. However, a number of participants expressed the view that currently, full-figured women who were neither slim nor fat were seen as attractive by society. Publication ethics & malpractice statement, https://web.fu-berlin.de/gpo/pdf/tagungen/balghis_badri.pdf, https://individual.utoronto.ca/sbaumann/Poetics2008.pdf, https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm294849.htmMercury . A short demographic questionnaire was also used to capture age, university, faculty and address; this was administered prior to the start of each interview. Of importance is the work of Fredrickson and Roberts (1997, Fredrickson 2011), who seek to place the female body in a sociocultural context and to explore the tendency of women who are subjected to constant processes of acculturation to internalise and adopt the observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves and the hegemonic narrative of beauty. In doing so, there has been constant minimisation and ignoring of the African elements of Sudanese culture. Some also bought unknown mixtures of a number of products that had been blended by shopkeepers. The rituals also enhanced their employment and marriage prospects, and their standing in their communities. The last practice described by the women was that of skin lightening. Bringing Back the Body: A Retrospective on the Development of Objectification Theory. For instance, face scarifying and lip tattooing do not feature in the modern Sudanese female-body ideal; hence, these beauty rituals are practised less and less, although they remain important in the history of Sudan. Participants came from Christian and Muslim families and, regardless of their origin, were all city-residents. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3 (2):77101. In rural areas, there remained an appreciation of fatness as a sign of female beauty, and many related traditional methods were still in use. Several reasons were given as to the importance of a large body size. Additionally, TIM includes internalisation of societally constructed ideal body image and social comparison as two mediating factors that indirectly influence the development of body-image dissatisfaction and eating disorders. One participant, detailing her planned activity, explained: However, there was a reluctance to try some of the new methods, as another respondent stated when discussing how she gained weight: The ingestion of tablets was, however, fairly common and was seen as an easy way to gain weight: , Some of the participants also talked about the steps taken to fatten specific parts of the body: , All the participants perceived the application of black henna as an important symbol of Sudanese society and the institution of marriage.

Psychology of Women Quarterly. These factors are of importance to any behavioural-change approaches seeking to address the health-related problems associated with these beauty practices. However, clear changes have taken place in the methods used to gain weight, and to lighten and decorate the skin. Unlike the idealisation of a slim figure (Stice, 1994; Thompson and Stice, 2004) and tanned skin that prevails in many modern Western societies (Phelan, 2002; Cafri et al., 2006), the dominant social perception of female physical attractiveness in many parts of Africa is to be largebodied, and to have skin that is light in colour (AL Qauhiz 2010; Yousif et. Idris A 2005. New York: Guilford Press: 5179. Twenty-five women agreed to take part, and 19 actually took part.

Annual Review of Sociology Vol.26: 169185. Dlova N, Hamed S, Tsoka-Gwegweni J, Grobler A and Hift R (2014). (2012) Mercury content in low cost skin lightening cream products. 7 (1): 124128. There are a number of significant influences that have shaped modern Sudanese society. The findings reveal that of the 19 women interviewed, all applied or were willing to apply black henna, 16 were using or had used skin-lightening products, and 13 were trying or intended to try to gain weight. The concept of race (Winant, 2000) remains a key social construction and significant influence on Sudanese society. The criteria for inclusion were that participants were female university students, aged between 16 and 25 years old. Participants used the expressions full-figured, not too fat, not too thin and medium-sized to refer to the ideal body weight for women in Sudanese society.

As in the past, there were other features such as long hair, a small nose, medium height (being neither too short nor too tall), wide eyes and a rounded, well-proportioned face that were seen to further enhance beauty: . From birth, a girl is prepared to be a wife, tending to be taught cooking skills and the importance of projecting an ideal version of womanhood in order to secure a husband and maintain the social standing of her family. There are real and increasing health risks involved in the common beauty practices described; the participants were to differing extents aware of these risks but continued to use them. For the participants, the practices were linked to their sense of self, of womanhood and of cultural belonging. Although the data was collected in 2006, recent evidence shows these practices remain of importance to young women; there remains a need to explore the range of drivers behind such practices and how best to address their harmful impacts (Yousif et. Two of these four universities were private and the other two were public, to ensure that the sample also included a socio-economic range of participants. The fact that these women were engaged in these beauty practices shows they were meaningful to them. Dokhan smoke bath is a traditional method of lightening the skin, using a particular wood with a distinctive scent; however, it is mainly used by married women. al 2014). Although the data reported here were collected in 2006, recent evidence shows these practices remain of importance to young women; there remains a need to explore the range of drivers behind such practices and how best to address their harmful impacts. Journal of Black Studies, 42 (8):1175-1194. For example, the participant 14 (aged 21 years) said: . To date, few studies have investigated body ideation and body-image perception in developing countries.

13 (3):236-41. The extent of the use of these methods varied according to cost and to previous experience with other products. 2004).This model, rooted in the role and influence of parents, peers and media, is key to understanding the impact of body dissatisfaction on eating disorders. Vol: 35: 689-696. A numerical code was assigned to each interview. The practices of a number of participants and their friends highlight this point: The process aims not only to attain a lighter skin colour but also to avoid tanning or the skin becoming darker. Over time and with scientific developments, women started using fewer of these natural substances and switched to new products and chemicals, in the belief they are more efficient in achieving similar results. (eds.) Body Image issue Vol.1: 23725. Follow us on @ScimagoJRScimago Lab, Copyright 2007-2022. Braun V and Clarke V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. In both cases, the socio-cultural context that is, the culturally specific and shifting values, beliefs or ways of knowing, and the dominant narratives of beauty play central, determining roles (Tai Soon 2013). The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued warnings about the use of creams such as Diana and Rose which contain mercury which can cause kidney disease and affect foetal brain development. These creams were the most commonly applied to the body and combined with the use of soaps and tablets. A qualitative methodology was chosen in order to capture rich data about the participants views, perceptions and lived experiences. Clinical Psychology Review, 14 (7): 633661. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. Some participants used a mixture of a number of creams made by shopkeepers; these comprised unidentified creams with unknown adverse effects: , It is important to note that not all the participants used skin-lightening products. These beliefs are embedded in societies, shaped by societal factors, and thus variable in time and place. These new products and their efficiency come at a high cost to health; they are increasingly risky and have a negative impact on women. Jalika C, Gaska K, Kelly M. L, Michael W. (2014) Skin bleaching: A neglected form of injury and threat to global skin, African Safety Promotion Journal, 12 (1): 52-71. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27 (6):443456. The study centred on young, university-educated women, and it is evident that more work has to be done to capture the views of other age, class and religious groups of women. Ghana Med J. The methods most commonly used by the participants were the cheapest, most widely available and accessible: There are these tubes; people use these creams all the time. Additional themes addressed the removal of the adverse effects of extended skin bleaching; to satisfy ones partner and/or attract male friends; to satisfy and impress peers. The researcher gained consent from the universities to interview female students. Poetics 36 (1): 223. Skin lightening compounds are potential health hazards. Journal of Communication 62 (5):869887. Moreover, it provides important baseline data that can be used to underpin the development of health-promotion programmes of benefit to Sudanese women.

54 (2):245-8. Women in some parts of the world choose or are forced to gain weight in order to conform to feminine beauty parameters idealised by society (Kiawi et al., 2006; Batnitzky, 2011; Benkeser, et al 2012); in this study, induced weight gain refers to methods used to accomplish a societally desirable body weight. It can also cause mental illnesses such as psychosis, and changes in or loss of hearing, vision or taste. The aim of the study presented in this paper was to explore Sudanese female university students perceptions of the ideal body in Sudan and common beauty practices. During the fourth phase, the themes were developed into a thematic map to clarify the direction of analysis by understanding the patterns in, and relationships between, the data. Nevertheless, the study reported here adds to an under-studied area of body image within the context of the developing world in general and Sudan in particular. The research method was designed so that the data could be analysed thematically, following guidelines developed by Braun and Clarke (2006). Fredrickson B, Hendler L, Nilsen S, OBarr J, and Roberts T (2011). Page Last Updated on 02/26/2015, Evaluation of a Health Education Intervention to Improve Knowledge, Skills, Behavioral Intentions and Resources Associated with Preventable Determinants of Infant Mortality, Impact of Medicare Part D on Racial and Ethnic Minorities, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Social care institute for Excellence(SCIE), Directory of Research Journal Indexing (DRJI), Sudan, socio-cultural, body image, beauty practices, health risks, qualitative research. Of particular importance were scarification, as it reflected the tribal connections, and body size, with one respondent explaining: In the past, people considered obese and fat girls as beautiful. Moreover, there had been a simplicity in the beauty practices performed, as (Participant 2, aged 20 years) reflected: , In response to questions on modern-day notions of beauty, all the participants were aware that having light skin and being full-figured were very important; it was also important for married women to decorate their bodies with black henna. Ethnicity & Disease. This is evident in the switch from natural henna to black henna, the use of Dokhan now being complemented with a wide range of skin-lightening products, and the increased use of pills and insulin injections to supplement the gaining of weight through a sedentary life style and a high-calorie diet. Hunter M (2002) if youre light youre alright light skin color as social capital for women of color. Tai Soon Y (2013) Directional Internalization of Sociocultural Values Related to the Appearance of Body Image and Self-Esteem. The study was approved by the facultys Research Ethics Board before data collection began. The study adds to our knowledge of how beauty practices are perceived by women in Sudan, and of the role of place and socio-cultural factors. The impact of Islam in all spheres of political, social and cultural life, and the fact that Islamic-Arabic culture forms the basis of Sudanese national identity (Spaulding and Kapteijns,1991; Kirwan et al., 2002; Badri, 2006; Fabos, 2008), has, among other things, shaped dominant notions of beauty and the common beauty practices performed by Sudanese women. and Emery, R. E. Olumide YM, Akinkugbe AO, Altraide D, Mohammed T, Ahamefule N, Ayanlowo S, Onyekonwu C and Essen N, (2008) Complications of chronic use of skin lightening cosmetics. Winant H (2000) Race and Race Theory. In the past, methods used to achieve beauty standards were simple and relied more on natural resources. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. Phelan S (2002) Fads and Fashions: The Price Women Pay, Primary Care Update for OB/GYNS, 9 (4):138143. All three beauty practices are commonly performed; and all carry high health risks. Badri B (2006) Feminist Perspectives in the Sudan An analytical overview. Being overweight is linked to cardiovascular disease (primarily heart disease and stroke), diabetes, musculoskeletal disorders, and cancers such as those of the womb, breast and colon.

al (2014) conducted a study to examine the use of skin lightening creams that contain hydroquinone, corticosteroids and mercury. Conforming to and engaging in these beauty practices thus enriched most participants sense of belonging to Sudanese society and helped them to achieve their social identity and hence self-worth. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Poisoning Linked to Skin Products. The researcher confirmed that confidentiality would be maintained throughout the study. It is also evident that the socio-cultural context of how health is understood and improved remains a pressing consideration. Single women are not allowed to use it, and many of the participants commented on the fact that there would be strong social disapproval if they did, for it is known as an unspoken code for women to express their desire and readiness for sex. Open Medicine. Throughout this process, special attention was paid to recognising and seeking to interpret the social context within which the participants experiences and thoughts were rooted. Data Source: Scopus, Metrics based on Scopus data as of April 2022, Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics, Agricultural and Biological Sciences (miscellaneous), Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology (miscellaneous), Business, Management and Accounting (miscellaneous), Computer Graphics and Computer-Aided Design, Critical Care and Intensive Care Medicine, Earth and Planetary Sciences (miscellaneous), Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics, Economics, Econometrics and Finance (miscellaneous), Electronic, Optical and Magnetic Materials, Geotechnical Engineering and Engineering Geology, Immunology and Microbiology (miscellaneous), Management Science and Operations Research, Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management, Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics (miscellaneous), Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation, Political Science and International Relations, Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health, Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment, Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Management, Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology - Proceedings, Chinese Journal of Tissue Engineering Research, Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, International Journal of Robust and Nonlinear Control, Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine and Biotechnology, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Translational Vision Science and Technology, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research - Part B Applied Biomaterials, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research - Part A, Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News, Biomedical Physics and Engineering Express, Lecture Notes in Computational Vision and Biomechanics, Journal of diabetes science and technology, Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology, and Medicine, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, International journal of computer assisted radiology and surgery. First, such a figure made clothes fit better and appears more attractive: , Second, a full-figured body was considered to be sexually attractive, enhancing sexual gravitation, as one respondent: , Skin lightening was seen to enhance not only social position, but also security, both in marriage and in employment: , There was a universal view regarding henna, including black-henna dye. Follow us on @ScimagoJRScimago Lab, Copyright 2007-2022. Some believed that a combination of both physical attractiveness and moral values was essential for women to be viewed as beautiful. Thompson JK, Stice E (2004) 'Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology', in Oltmanns T.F. A qualitative study of the motives behind skin bleaching in Tanzania elicited six important themes: the removal of pimples, rashes, and skin disease; to have soft skin; to look European, White and beautiful. Ibrahim F (1972) Our Harvest in Twenty Years. AL Qauhiz N (2010).Obesity among Saudi Female University Students: Dietary Habits and Health Behaviors.

Khartoum: Karmal. Skin lightening refers to attempts to lighten skin colour (Kooyers,et.al 2006). The study findings were based on 19 semi-structured interviews conducted with female university students from different universities across the capital of Sudan (Table 1). 20 ( 7): 777780. al 2014; Benkeser, et al 2012). These practices underpinned what it meant to be a Sudanese woman, as well as what it took to be considered desirable and of worth in a society where womens position and role remained unequal to mens in law, custom and politics. Third, the domination of Muslim-Arab Sudanese identity has given rise to hierarchical categories undermining other Sudanese ethnic groups (Kirwan et al., 2002). The themes covered in the schedule were: concept of womens beauty, healthy lifestyle, diet, body weight, exercise, skin-lightening practice, black-henna practice, self-esteem, awareness of health-risk behaviours, and pathway for change.



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