Drug Resist Updat. Further portable devices that are well-designed and safe enough will be needed. Shang L, Xie F, Li J, Zhang Y, Liu M, Zhao P, et al. doi: 10.1002/med.21461, 3. (2019) 120:42532. Both groups exhibited similar tumor response to radiotherapy, indicating that the consumption of hydrogen-rich water reduced the radiation-induced oxidative stress while at the same time didn't compromise anti-tumor effect of radiotherapy (93). doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2010.11.022, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, 2. (2010) 12:55461. (2017) 7:7685. Li Y, Li Q, Chen H, Wang T, Liu L, Wang G, et al. doi: 10.1007/s12035-015-9242-y, 31. Int J Mol Sci. (2016) 139:263545. Cui Q, Yang Y, Ji N, Wang JQ, Ren L, Yang DH, et al. Rodriguez ML, Martin MM, Padellano LC, Palomo AM, Puebla YI. (2016) 8:44727. Nat Med. Chromosomes 3 (SMC3), a complex required for chromosome cohesion during the cell cycle (97), was suppressed by hydrogen gas via ubiquitinating effects. Yang Q, Ji G, Pan R, Zhao Y, Yan P. Protective effect of hydrogen-rich water on liver function of colorectal cancer patients treated with mFOLFOX6 chemotherapy. doi: 10.3109/07853890.2015.1034765, 18. Nat Immunol. (2009) 64:75361. Molecules. doi: 10.1007/s00520-019-4660-4. The concentration order of hydrogen gas, when reached saturated status, was liver, brain, mesentery, muscle, kidney, indicating various distributions among organs in rats. doi: 10.4103/2045-9912.248266, 61. More importantly, in most of the research, hydrogen gas has demonstrated safety profile and certain selectivity property to cancer cells over normal cells, which is quite pivotal to clinical trials. Transl Cancer Res. Cheung YT, Ng T, Shwe M, Ho HK, Foo KM, Cham MT, et al. Recently, hydrogen gas has been recognized as another important GSM in biology, exhibiting appealing potential in health care for its role in preventing cell injury from various attacking (1619). Sci Rep. (2019) 9:1255. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-38180-4, 25. Typical inflammatory cytokines include interleukins (ILs) excreted by white blood cells, tumor necrosis factors (TNFs) excreted by macrophages, both of which have shown close linkage to cancer initiation and progression (5659), and both of ILs and TNFs can be suppressed by hydrogen gas (60, 61). Severe acute interstitial pneumonia and gefitinib. Stem Cell Res Ther. (2011) 1:11. doi: 10.1186/2045-9912-1-11, 94. A phase II study of 5-fluorouracil/L-leucovorin/oxaliplatin. Quantitative trait loci on chromosomes 3 and 17 influence phenotypes of the metabolic syndrome. Subcutaneous injection of hydrogen gas is a novel effective treatment for type 2 diabetes. doi: 10.1054/drup.2001.0219, 55. Fukuda K, Asoh S, Ishikawa M, Yamamoto Y, Ohsawa I, Ohta S. Inhalation of hydrogen gas suppresses hepatic injury caused by ischemia/reperfusion through reducing oxidative stress. Cancer Cell. doi: 10.1002/hep.25782, 97. Further microarray analysis revealed that hydrogen-water treatment up-regulated miR-1968-5p, which then up-regulated its target myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88, a mediator in immunopathology, and gut microbiota dynamics of certain intestinal diseases involving toll-like receptors 9) expression in the small intestine after total abdominal irradiation (92). Apoptosis, also termed as programed cell death, can be triggered by extrinsic or intrinsic signals and executed by different molecular pathways, which serve as one efficient strategy for cancer treatment (67, 68). Interestingly, due the over-produced ROS in cancer cells (38), the administration of hydrogen gas may lower the ROS level at the beginning, but it provokes much more ROS production as a result of compensation effect, leading to the killing of cancer cells (52). doi: 10.1038/nrc3613, 54.
Recently, hydrogen gas was found to inhibit cancer stem cells (CSCs). Nat Commun. Dixon BJ, Tang J, Zhang JH. Consolidation mFOLFOX6 chemotherapy after chemoradiotherapy improves survival in patients with locally advanced rectal cancer: final results of a multicenter phase II trial. Modulating ROS to overcome multidrug resistance in cancer. Ning K, Liu WW, Huang JL, Lu HT, Sun XJ. Wang D, Wang L, Zhang Y, Zhao Y, Chen G. Hydrogen gas inhibits lung cancer progression through targeting SMC3. (2017) 18:84350. (2013) 3:10. doi: 10.1186/2045-9912-3-10, Keywords: hydrogen gas, ROS, inflammation, combination, anti-cancer, Citation: Li S, Liao R, Sheng X, Luo X, Zhang X, Wen X, Zhou J and Peng K (2019) Hydrogen Gas in Cancer Treatment. 29. Semin Immunol. ROS signaling under metabolic stress: cross-talk between AMPK and AKT pathway. (2018) 19:E448. Photocatalyzing CO2 to CO for enhanced cancer therapy. (2014) 46:36975. Med Gas Res. Not only working as an adjuvant therapy, hydrogen gas can also suppress tumor and tumor cells growth. Support Care Cancer. (2016) 80:18703. This study suggested that hydrogen-rich saline treatment exerted its protective effects via inhibiting the inflammatory TNF-/IL-6 pathway, increasing the cleaved C8 expression and Bcl-2/Bax ratio, and attenuating cell apoptosis in both heart and liver tissue (71). Another recent study also confirmed the effects of hydrogen gas in suppressing glioblastoma (GBM), the most common malignant brain tumor. Sci Rep. (2017) 7:6889. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-05930-9, 9. Hydrogen-rich water suppressed the Fe-NTA-induced oxidative stress by lowering lipid peroxidation, ONOO, and inhibiting the activities of NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase, as well as by up-regulating antioxidant catalase, and restoring mitochondrial function in kidneys. Zhao P, Jin Z, Chen Q, Yang T, Chen D, Meng J, et al.
Mol Neurobiol. Li Z, Huang Y, Du J, Liu AD, Tang C, Qi Y, et al. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) due to oxidative stress induced by various stimuli, is one of the reasons that cause hepatocarcinogenesis (94, 95). Lab Invest. Review and prospect of the biomedical effects of hydrogen. Cui Q, Wang JQ, Assaraf YG, Ren L, Gupta P, Wei L, et al. (2018) 104:78897. reported that the consumption of hydrogen-rich water alleviated renal injury caused by Ferric nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA) in rats, evidenced by decreased levels of serum creatinine and BUN. Protective effects of hydrogen-rich saline against erectile dysfunction in a streptozotocin induced diabetic rat model. Furthermore, hydrogen-rich water shortened the healing time and increased the healing rate of skin injury (48). 1. (2018) 38:115987. Gao Y, Yang H, Fan Y, Li L, Fang J, Yang W. Hydrogen-rich saline attenuates cardiac and hepatic injury in doxorubicin rat model by inhibiting inflammation and apoptosis.
One clinical trials (NCT03818347) is now undergoing to study the hydrogen gas in cancer rehabilitation in China. (2013) 5:837. Future Med Chem. doi: 10.1038/s41374-019-0187-z, 81. These data suggested that hydrogen gas could serve as a new method for the treatment of lung cancer (98). doi: 10.1097/SHK.0000000000000810, 50. (2015) 44:908. (mFOLFOX6) in Japanese patients with metastatic or unresectable small bowel adenocarcinoma. doi: 10.1111/febs.14209, 96.
doi: 10.7314/APJCP.2012.13.7.3099, 76. (2018) 8:1549. Hydrogen gas has been recognized as one medical gas that has potential in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer (17, 60). The hydrogen-rich saline administration could reverse these toxic effects by reducing MDA and restoring the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), two important anti-oxidant enzymes.
Am J Transl Res. (2006) 10:1756.
Gastrointestinal toxicity associated to radiation therapy. doi: 10.1038/nm1577, 27. PLoS ONE. By regulating ROS, hydrogen gas may act as an adjuvant regimen to reduce the adverse effects in cancer treatment while at the same time doesn't abrogate the cytotoxicity of other therapy, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy (48, 51). Gorrini C, Harris IS, Mak TW. Typically, hydrogen gas may exert its bio-functions via regulating ROS, inflammation and apoptosis events. (2016) 6:96. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2016.00096, 60. Zhao et al. The information may direct the future clinical application of hydrogen gas. Int J Mol Sci.
Biomark Insights. doi: 10.1126/science.1166304, 26. Li et al. Hydrogen-rich water exhibited strong inhibitory effects to inflammatory cytokines TNF- and IL-6, oxidative stress and apoptosis biomarker. At certain concentration, it can either serve as apoptosis-inhibiting agent via inhibiting the pro-apoptotic B-cell lymphoma-2-associated X protein (Bax), caspase-3, 8, 12, and enhancing the anti-apoptotic B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) (71), or as apoptosis-inducing agent via the contrast mechanisms (72), suggesting its potential in protecting normal cells from anti-cancer drugs or in suppressing cancer cells. Although hydrogen gas was studied as a therapy in a skin squamous carcinoma mouse model back in 1975 (25), its potential in medical application has not been vastly explored until 2007, when Oshawa et al. The presence of ROS can produce cellular stress and damage that may produce cell death, via a mechanism known as oxidative stress (39, 40). Gas signaling molecules (GSMs), composed of oxygen, carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen sulfide, etc., play critical roles in regulating signal transduction and cellular homeostasis.
Mei K, Zhao S, Qian L, Li B, Ni J, Cai J. Hydrogen protects rats from dermatitis caused by local radiation. reported that hydrogen could ameliorate cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury by selectively reducing cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), including hydroxyl radical (OH) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) (26), which then provoked a worldwide attention. doi: 10.3390/biom5032073, 56. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. The healing effect of hydrogen-rich water on acute radiation-induced skin injury in rats. Furthermore, hydrogen-rich saline stimulated the Nrf2 pathway in rats with ovarian damage (86). wound peroxide cleaning hydrogen soap water clean cuts glance story (2017) 29:1703822. doi: 10.1002/adma.201703822, 13. Antonioli L, Blandizzi C, Pacher P, Hasko G. Immunity, inflammation and cancer: a leading role for adenosine. (1975) 190:1524. Oncotarget. designed a solidified hydrogen-occluding-silica (H2-silica) that could stably release molecular hydrogen into cell culture medium. Tamura T, Hayashida K, Sano M, Suzuki M, Shibusawa T, Yoshizawa J, et al. Novel therapeutics in combination with radiotherapy to improve cancer treatment: rationale, mechanisms of action and clinical perspective. Copyright 2019 Li, Liao, Sheng, Luo, Zhang, Wen, Zhou and Peng. Inadequate production of H2 by gut microbiota and Parkinson disease. (2018) 31:138. Inflammation induced by chemotherapy in cancer patients not only causes severely adverse effects (62, 63), but also leads to cancer metastasis, and treatment failure (64, 65). Kang KM, Kang YN, Choi IB, Gu Y, Kawamura T, Toyoda Y, et al. As shown in Xiao et al. Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, United States, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, United States. doi: 10.1016/j.drup.2018.11.001, 43.
Doxorubicin, an anthracycline antibiotic, is an effective anticancer agent in the treatment of various cancers, but its application is limited for the fatal dilated cardiomyopathy and hepatotoxicity (81, 82). (2014) 25:1828. (2011) 17:Y14. Chuai Y, Zhao L, Ni J, Sun D, Cui J, Li B, et al. Hydrogen-rich saline also induced less expression of apoptotic Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and higher anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, resulting in less apoptosis in both tissues (71). doi: 10.1253/circj.CJ-16-0127, 36. Clin Transl Oncol. A clinical study in 2016 showed that inhalation of hydrogen gas was safe in patients with post-cardiac arrest syndrome (35), its further therapeutic application in other diseases became even more appealing. (2017) 8:10265373. (2018) 9:4241. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-06630-2, 53. Razzaghdoust A, Mofid B, Peyghambarlou P. Predictors of chemotherapy-induced severe anemia in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. Med Sci Monit. Similar results were also observed in Meng et al. Hydrogen gas alleviates the intestinal injury caused by severe sepsis in mice by increasing the expression of heme oxygenase-1. doi: 10.1038/nrd4002, 46. (2017) 48:8593. (2015) 10:227782. hydrogen peroxide bottle grade altcancer instructions user Dermond O, Ruegg C. Inhibition of tumor angiogenesis by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: emerging mechanisms and therapeutic perspectives. Inflammatory cytokines are a series of signal molecules that mediate the innate immune response, whose dys-regulation may contribute in many diseases, including cancer (5355). Dong A, Yu Y, Wang Y, Li C, Chen H, Bian Y, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). More importantly, hydrogen-rich water consumption inhibited several cancer-related proteins expression, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in rats, resulting in lower incidence of renal cell carcinoma and the suppression of tumor growth. Acs Nano. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. Susanne K, Michael F, Thomas S, Peter E, Andreas H. Predictors of fatigue in cancer patients: a longitudinal study. (37, 38). ph balance cancer every too acidic easiest single person check way Gao Y, Yang H, Chi J, Xu Q, Zhao L, Yang W, et al. (2017) 7:45265. Due to its physicochemical characteristics, the use of hydrogen gas has been strictly limited in hospital and medical facilities and laboratories. Curr Pharm Des. (2019) 10:111. Anticancer effect of exogenous hydrogen sulfide in cisplatinresistant A549/DDP cells. (2018) 9:8390. (2014) 7:101523. This work suggested that hydrogen-rich water was a promising regimen to attenuate Fe-NTA-induced renal injury and suppress early tumor events (66). The mFOLFOX6 regimen, composed with folinic acid, 5-fluorouracil, and oxaliplatin, is used as first-line treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer, but it also confers toxic effects to liver, leading to bad quality of life of patient (87, 88). Kumari S, Badana AK, G MM, G S, Malla R. Reactive oxygen species: a key constituent in cancer survival. water plates ionizer alkaline mesh kyk comparison plate (2013) 61:24854. Wang FH, Shen L, Li J, Zhou ZW, Liang H, Zhang XT, et al. Molecular hydrogen suppresses glioblastoma growth via inducing the glioma stem-like cell differentiation. (2003) 361:1379. Oncol. Gaseous signaling molecules (GSMs) refer to a group of gaseous molecules, such as oxygen (1), nitric oxide (2), carbon monoxide (3), hydrogen sulfide (4), sulfur dioxide (5, 6), ethylene (7, 8), etc. Xiao HW, Li Y, Luo D, Dong JL, Zhou LX, Zhao SY, et al. Yamamoto R, Homma K, Suzuki S, Sano M, Sasaki J. Hydrogen gas distribution in organs after inhalation: real-time monitoring of tissue hydrogen concentration in rat. Mechanistic study revealed that H2-silica exerted its anticancer via inducing H2O2 accumulation, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis induction mediated by mitochondrial apoptotic pathways (72). Chemotherapy and radiotherapy remain the leading strategies to treat cancer (73, 74). Chen J, Luo H, Liu Y, Zhang W, Li H, Luo T, et al. (2013) 12:93147. Onco Targets Ther. Therefore, benefited from its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory and other cell protective properties, hydrogen gas can be adopted as an adjuvant therapeutic regimen to suppress these adverse effects. (summarized in Table 1). doi: 10.1016/j.smim.2018.10.011, 57. Nitric Oxide. doi: 10.1038/ni.3754, 58. Plasma-derived inflammatory proteins predict oral squamous cell carcinoma. (2015) 47:3014. doi: 10.1139/cjpp-2019-0067, 19. Nita M, Grzybowski A. (2018) 10:19.
Another study also confirmed that hydrogen gas might reduce the oxygen toxicity resulted from hyperbaric oxygen via effectively reducing OH (46). Terasaki Y, Suzuki T, Tonaki K, Terasaki M, Kuwahara N, Ohsiro J, et al. Importantly, in vivo study showed that under hydrogen gas treatment, tumor growth was significantly inhibited, as well as the expression of Ki-67, VEGF and SMC3. (2015) 5:2073100. (2013) 14:1046582. Dual-targeted and pH-sensitive doxorubicin prodrug-microbubble complex with ultrasound for tumor treatment. Second, hydrogen may induce the expression of some antioxidant enzymes that can eliminate ROS, and it plays key roles in regulating redox homeostasis of cancer cells (42, 47). Hydrogen gas reduced the colony formation and sphere formation of human ovarian cancer cell lines Hs38.T and PA-1 cells via inhibiting the proliferation marker Ki67, stem cell markers CD34, and angiogenesis. doi: 10.1093/jrr/rry074, 49. The evolution of molecular hydrogen: a noteworthy potential therapy with clinical significance. Its mechanism, target, indications are also not clear, further study are warranted. doi: 10.1016/j.drup.2010.01.002, 75. J Transl Med. The combination of radiotherapy with certain forms of hydrogen gas may be beneficial to alleviate these side effects (89). Gaseous signaling molecules and their application in resistant cancer treatment: from invisible to visible. SL, XW, JZ, and KP: conceptualization. Smith NW, Shorten PR, Altermann EH, Roy NC, McNabb WC. Hydrogen acts as a therapeutic antioxidant by selectively reducing cytotoxic oxygen radicals. In the study, cisplatin treatment induced higher level of oxidation products, suppressed the antioxidant enzyme activity. Ma Y, Yan Z, Deng X, Guo J, Hu J, Yu Y, et al. [Epub ahead of print]. Med Gas Res. Therapeutic potential of molecular hydrogen in ovarian cancer. Once generated in vivo, due to their high reactivity, ROS may attack proteins, DNA/RNA and lipids in cells, eliciting distinct damage that may lead to apoptosis. Hydrogen gas may also work alone or synergistically with other therapy to suppress tumor growth via inducing apoptosis, inhibiting CSCs-related and cell cycle-related factors, etc. Int J Clin Oncol. Hydrogen gas alleviates chronic intermittent hypoxia-induced renal injury through reducing iron overload. The application of hydrogen gas in cancer treatment is still in its nascent stage, further mechanistic study and the development of portable instruments are warranted. SL, RL, and XS: revising. (2012) 24:98190. J Breath Res. A review of hydrogen as a new medical therapy. As tested in a rat model of skin damage established by using a 44 Gy electronic beam, the treated group by hydrogen-rich water exhibited higher lever of SOD activity and lower MDA and IL-6 in the wounded tissues than the control group and the distilled water group. This effect was further confirmed by apoptosis and cell migration assay in these two cell lines.
(2010) 44:47996. Another in vivo study tested the distribution of hydrogen in brain, liver, kidney, mesentery fat, and thigh muscle in rat upon inhalation of 3% hydrogen gas (24). A review of hydrogen sulfide synthesis, metabolism, and measurement: is modulation of hydrogen sulfide a novel therapeutic for cancer? (2004) 7:97110. Hydrogen-rich water also showed renal protective effect against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. (2018) 29:2868. doi: 10.3109/09546634.2012.762639, 91. Hydrogen-rich water treatment could significantly reverse the toxic effects, and it showed much higher transverse relaxation rate by eliminating oxygen radicals (83, 84). In 4T1 murine breast cancer tumor model and B16-F10 melanoma tumor model, the combined PdH0.2 nanocrystals and NIR irradiation therapy exhibited a synergetic anticancer effect, leading to remarkable tumor inhibition when compared with thermal therapy. Liou GY, Storz P. Reactive oxygen species in cancer. (2011) 17:224152. ROS refers to a series of unstable molecules that contain oxygen, including singlet oxygen (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radical (OH), superoxide (O2-), nitric oxide (NO), and peroxynitrite (ONOO), etc. Effects of drinking hydrogen-rich water on the quality of life of patients treated with radiotherapy for liver tumors. (2019) 60:1722. doi: 10.1016/j.dld.2013.12.007, 4. Oxygen-self-produced nanoplatform for relieving hypoxia and breaking resistance to sonodynamic treatment of pancreatic cancer. Int J Mol Sci. Hydrogen-rich water is non-toxic, inexpensive, easily administered, and can readily diffuse into tissues and cells (102), cross the blood-brain barrier (103), suggesting its potential in the treatment of brain tumor. (2011) 76:46770. Ostojic SM. Modulation of oxidative stress as an anticancer strategy. Under treatment of epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor gefitinib, patients with non-small cell lung cancer often suffer with severe acute interstitial pneumonia (79). More important, inhalation of hydrogen gas inhibited the tumor volume significantly as shown in the Hs38.T xenografted BALB/c nude mice model (99). (2009) 12:5564. One in vivo study showed that intraperitoneal injection of hydrogen-rich saline ameliorated the mortality, and cardiac dysfunction caused by doxorubicin. Int J Mol Sci. doi: 10.1097/DCR.0000000000001207, 88. (2018) 19:3283. doi: 10.3390/ijms19103283, 8. doi: 10.1080/19490976.2018.1546522, 22. Li Q, Tanaka Y, Miwa N. Influence of hydrogen-occluding-silica on migration and apoptosis in human esophageal cells in vitro. Zhang N, Deng C, Zhang X, Zhang J, Bai C. Inhalation of hydrogen gas attenuates airway inflammation and oxidative stress in allergic asthmatic mice. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2018.02.006, 28. Hydrogen gas can be generated in small amount by hydrogenase of certain members of the human gastrointestinal tract microbiota from unabsorbed carbohydrates in the intestine through degradation and metabolism (20, 21), which then is partially diffused into blood flow and released and detected in exhaled breath (20), indicating its potential to serve as a biomarker. Bottazzi B, Riboli E, Mantovani A. doi: 10.21037/tcr.2018.07.09, 100. (2018) 8:1449. Drug Resist Updat. Shen BY, Chen C, Xu YF, Shen JJ, Guo HM, Li HF, et al.
More importantly, hydrogen has been shown to improve clinical end-points and surrogate markers, from metabolic diseases to chronic systemic inflammatory disorders to cancer (17). doi: 10.1007/s10147-017-1138-6, 89. (2001) 4:31421. Protective effects of hydrogen gas against sepsis-induced acute lung injury via regulation of mitochondrial function and dynamics. doi: 10.1073/pnas.97.26.14478, 98. Shakola F, Suri P, Ruggiu M. Splicing regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines: at the interface of the neuroendocrine and immune systems. Padoan A, Plebani M, Basso D. Inflammation and pancreatic cancer: focus on metabolism, cytokines, and immunity. De Bels D, Corazza F, Germonpre P, Balestra C. The normobaric oxygen paradox: a novel way to administer oxygen as an adjuvant treatment for cancer? Med Gas Res. (2015) 26:144651. (2014) 12:163. doi: 10.1186/1479-5876-12-163, 45. Association of proinflammatory cytokines and chemotherapy-associated cognitive impairment in breast cancer patients: a multi-centered, prospective, cohort study. doi: 10.4103/2045-9912.248264. H2-silica could concentration-dependently inhibit the cell viability of human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (KYSE-70) cells, while it need higher dose to suppress normal human esophageal epithelial cells (HEEpiCs), indicating its selective profile. As shown in Wang et al. (2018) 65:36672. Shock. Med Gas Res. doi: 10.1007/s12094-010-0553-1, 92. Naturally, hydrogen gas is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, highly combustible gas which may form explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4 to 74% that can be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The role of the reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in the pathomechanism of the age-related ocular diseases and other pathologies of the anterior and posterior eye segments in adults.
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